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The forgotten Soviet VTOL jets

Jul 24, 2025 | AMAH, Cold War, Soviet/Russian

Forgotten Soviet VTOL jets include Yak-36 prototypes, underpowered Yak-38 Forger naval strikers with limited range, upgraded Yak-38M, canceled multi-role Yak-39, and supersonic Yak-141 promising advanced capabilities. Scrapped post-USSR collapse due to funding and practicality issues, they remained obscure without significant combat impact.

The Yakovlev Design Bureau began exploring VTOL concepts in 1960, influenced by British efforts (the Hawker P.1127/Kestrel). In response to a 1961 contract for a single-seat VTOL fighter, Yakovlev proposed the Yak-36 (NATO: “Freehand”) with twin engines, each feeding a swivelling downward nozzle near the aircraft’s centre of gravity. By early 1963, the first prototype was ready for tethered hovering tests. Four Yak-36 prototypes were built (one static test airframe and three flight-capable). The first tethered hover occurred on 9 January 1963, followed by the first untethered vertical flight on 23 June 1963, and the first transition from hover to horizontal flight on 16 September 1963. After further refinements, on 24 March 1966 the Yak-36 achieved a complete VTOL cycle (vertical takeoff → wing-borne flight → vertical landing).

Despite demonstrating basic VTOL capability, the Yak-36 was strictly an experimental aircraft. It had very limited range and payload (it could barely carry any ordnance) and was never put into production. The first public showing of the Yak-36 was at the Domodedovo air show in July 1967, impressing observers with its hovering flight. However, the Soviet military deemed the Yak-36 impractical for combat due to its minimal payload and short range. As a result, no operational orders were placed. Instead, the Yak-36’s test success gave Yakovlev the confidence and data to pursue a more capable follow-on VTOL design in the late 1960s – one that could be deployed from naval ships.

Yak-38 “Forger”: Development and Design

The successor to the Yak-36 was developed under the internal designation “Yak-36M”, which entered service as the Yakovlev Yak-38 Forger – the Soviet Navy’s first operational VTOL strike aircraft. It had one Tumansky R-27V-300 vectored-thrust turbofan in the rear (for both lift and cruise) and two small RD-36-35FV turbojets in the forward fuselage used purely as lift engines. (In other words, it employed three powerplants: one main engine with thrust-vectoring nozzles, plus a pair of vertical lift jets – this is unique among VTOL fighters, since Western designs like the Harrier used a single engine for both hover and flight.) The main engine’s twin swiveling nozzles were near the aircraft’s center of gravity, and louvered doors covered the lift jet intakes on the forward fuselage. The Yak-38 also featured an automatic ejection seat system: if a lift engine failed or the aircraft tilted past about 60° while in hover, the pilot would be ejected to safety. This life-saving device was indeed implemented after the earlier Yak-36 tests revealed how quickly an engine failure could topple a VTOL aircraft. For carrier operations, the Yak-38’s small mid-mounted wings could fold upward at the tips to save space. Overall, the Yak-38’s design philosophy was quite different from the British Harrier – the Soviets opted for a lift-cruise engine plus separate lift jets (trading payload and range for vertical thrust).

The Yak-38. It officially entered service on 11 August 1976 143 single-seat Yak-38s and two-seat trainer versions (Yak-38U “Forger-B”) were produced through to 1981. The Yak-38 was deployed on the new Kiev-class aviation cruisers, giving the Soviet Navy a limited organic air arm for the first time.

Yak-38 Performance and Limitations

Yak 38 Forger Gear Down

Yak-38 Forger

In service, the Yak-38 unfortunately proved to be underpowered and constrained in payload and range. The production Yak-38’s empty weight grew to about 7,370 kg (16,250 lb), nearly 1,600 lb heavier than the Yak-36M prototype had been. With full fuel and a vertical take-off, its maximum lift-off weight was 10,300 kg (22,700 lb). Because of the added weight and the limited thrust of its engines, the Yak-38 could carry only a modest weapons load. In fact, sources vary on the exact weapons payload capacity – one detailed analysis notes an effective ordnance load of only around 600 kg (≈1,300 lb) in practice. (For comparison, the Harrier could typically carry more weaponry or fuel for a given mission.) The Yak-38 had a total of four wing pylons, but it often flew with just two pylons fitted because it could not safely take off vertically with all four loaded. In vertical takeoff mode the max usable armament was about 1,000 kg (with a lighter fuel load). This severely limited the Forger’s strike capability and flexibility.

The Yak-38’s maximum speed was roughly 1,050 km/h (about 570 knots or Mach 0.85) in level flight – significantly slower than frontline fighters of the era. Its service ceiling was around 11,000 m (36,000 ft). The ferry range of 1,300 km often mentioned was only achievable under ideal conditions with no payload. In a normal combat configuration the combat radius was vastly shorter (on the order of 100–200 km). The lack of a search radar or sophisticated avionics also meant the Yak-38 was restricted to daylight, fair-weather operations and short-range weapons. By the time the Yak-38 became operational in the late 1970s, Western V/STOL aircraft (like the Sea Harrier) were already more capable in sensors and armament, thus the Forger lagged behind its chief competitor in many respects.

On the plus side, the Yak-38 could carry an array of ordnance suitable for its limited roles. For example, up to two Kh-23 “Kerry” (AS-10 Karen) radio-guided air-to-surface missiles for anti-ship or ground attack, or alternatively unguided bomb loads such as two 500 kg FAB-500 bombs (or four 250 kg bombs). It could also mount UV-16-57 rocket pods for 57 mm rockets, or a pair of R-60 (AA-8 ‘Aphid’) short-range air-to-air missiles for self-defence. A gun pod (23 mm GSh-23L twin-barrel cannon with 160 rounds) could be carried on a hardpoint as needed, since the Yak-38 had no internal gun. The Yak-38M upgrade (below) introduced the ability to use newer all-aspect R-60M AAMs and other improvements. In summary, while the Yak-38’s specs were not groundbreaking, it was armed well enough to perform short-range fleet defence or light strike missions – roles where it could, in theory, intercept intruders or attack surface targets in the absence of bigger carrier-based aircraft.

Yak-38M and Mid-Life Upgrades

An upgraded Forger variant arrived in the 1980s to address some of the Yak-38’s deficiencies. This was the Yak-38M (also referred to as “Forger-A” since NATO did not assign a new letter for it). After protracted development, the Yak-38M entered service in mid-1985. Notably, the Yak-38M received new engines: a Tumansky R-28 V-300 vectored-thrust turbofan replaced the original R-27V in the rear, and two Rybinsk RD-38 lift jets replaced the older RD-36-35FV models. These engines provided more thrust and were somewhat more robust in hot conditions. The modifications raised the aircraft’s vertical takeoff weight capacity from 10,300 kg to 11,300 kg (i.e. from ~22,700 lb to ~24,900 lb). The air intake geometry was slightly enlarged to feed the thirstier R-28 engine, and the wings were structurally reinforced. With stronger wings and boost in power, the Yak-38M’s hardpoints could now support a total ordnance load around 2,000 lb (900 kg), which roughly doubled the practical weapons carriage in VTOL operations. This finally allowed the jet to lift a full set of four weapons pylons with a light load on each (or two pylons with a heavier load). About 50 Yak-38M units were produced in 1985–1988. These changes improved the Forger’s capabilities but did not radically transform the aircraft – it was very much a stop-gap enhancement.

In terms of performance, the Yak-38M remained subsonic and similar in general flight envelope to the original Yak-38. Published figures show a maximum speed of ~1,100 km/h (570 knots) and service ceiling of ~11 km for the Yak-38M, essentially the same as before. The real benefits of the “M” were better engine reliability and higher payload lift in hot weather. The newer model could also utilize upgraded avionics and weapons: for example, it could deploy the improved R-60M heat-seeking missile (with all-aspect capability) and had an updated navigation/autopilot system. Nevertheless, the Yak-38M, while a notable improvement, still could not match the ingenuity and all-round performance of the latest Harriers. It extended the Yak-38’s service into the late 1980s and gave the Soviet Navy a slightly more credible VTOL force until a true next-generation VTOL could arrive (which, as it turned out, never reached service in time).

Yak-38 Operational Challenges and Deployments

Once in fleet service, the Yak-38 encountered significant practical problems. One major issue was engine and lift performance in hot climates. Early deployments revealed that in warm weather the Forger struggled to achieve safe vertical lift. For instance, during the Yak-38’s very first carrier workups in the summer of 1976 (Black Sea trials on the Kiev), the high ambient temperatures often prevented the aircraft from carrying any external weapons at all – even with reduced fuel – because the lift engines couldn’t provide enough thrust. The Soviet Navy also found that in the Indian Ocean’s hot, humid air the Yak-38’s twin lift jets sometimes failed to ignite at all, making vertical take-offs impossible. In one reported case, when the Kiev went on its first extended cruise in 1976 with a half-dozen Yak-38s, by the end of the trip only one aircraft was still operational; the rest had been grounded by technical failures.

To mitigate the overheating and low-thrust issues, engineers retrofitted an oxygen-enrichment system to the lift engines starting in late 1979. This system bled extra oxygen into the intakes to improve lift engine combustion in hot/thin air. It helped somewhat, but did not fully solve the VTOL performance limitations in extreme climates. Western observers have noted that the Yak-38 was effectively unusable during hot midday conditions – on a 1980s voyage of the Minsk in the Indian Ocean, the Forgers could only operate in early morning or late evening due to temperature constraints. The Yak-38M upgrade in 1985 improved matters with more powerful engines, yet even the Yak-38M continued to be “power-starved” by Western standards – Soviet pilots still preferred rolling short takeoffs when possible, to conserve engine life and fuel.

Reliability was another sore point. The Yak-38’s two little lift jets were infamously short-lived: each had a rated service life of only ~22 hours of operation before needing overhaul. (Although they were only activated briefly for takeoff and landing, this was still an extremely low endurance.) The complexity of having three jet engines, plus the novelty of VTOL controls, led to frequent maintenance issues. By some accounts roughly one third of all Yak-38s built were lost in accidents over their service career – a very high attrition rate, though many losses were non-fatal due to the automatic ejection system saving pilots. Yak-38 pilots had understandable apprehension about the aircraft’s safety and limitations. All these factors back up the script’s portrayal of the Forger as a problematic platform in operational use.

On a more positive note, there were a few limited deployments and “firsts” for the Yak-38. In a secret 50-day trial in April–May 1980, code-named Operation Romb-1, four Yak-38s (with four test pilots) were sent to Shindand air base in Afghanistan to evaluate their performance in a high-altitude, hot-and-dusty war environment. The Yak-38s flew a number of sorties but saw no actual combat. In fact, only 12 trial sorties were conducted in total. The ‘hot-and-high’ conditions severely limited payload – each Forger could carry only two small 100 kg bombs and minimal fuel, and even then, they found the aircraft could not operate past the early morning hours (after ~0500) due to the thinning air in daytime heat. Soviet reports from this trial confirmed that after mid-morning the Yak-38 simply could not safely take off vertically at Shindand (which sits ~1,100 m above sea level). The deployment did, however, demonstrate that VTOL jets could be based at austere forward locations – the Yak-38s operated from a crude airstrip with steel matting, validating the concept of dispersing VTOL aircraft beyond regular runways.

Also in Afghanistan the Yak-38’s exhaust was kicking up intense dust clouds. This is corroborated by test pilot accounts – the downward jet blast from the nozzles indeed created far more dust than a helicopter rotor would, leading to dangerous “brownout” conditions. Ground crew at Shindand reported that a hovering Yak-38 would sandblast the area, reducing visibility and posing Foreign Object Damage risks to the engine. Ultimately, the Afghan trial concluded that attack helicopters (like the Mi-24 Hind) were much better suited for the close air support role in that theater. The Yak-38s were withdrawn, having proven the concept of forward VTOL ops but also their own unsuitability for real combat in such conditions.

The Yak-38’s only “combat interception” occurred in December 1982, when two Yak-38s flying from the Minsk intercepted and warded off a pair of U.S. carrier-based aircraft over the Arabian Sea. The Soviet pilots were armed with R-60 missiles, marking the first (and only) instance of Soviet VTOL fighters being on track to engage American planes. No shots were fired, but it was a symbolic achievement. By the late 1980s, however, the writing was on the wall – the Yak-38 force was increasingly seen as an operational experiment rather than a frontline asset. Many Soviet naval aviators regarded the Forger as a necessary stepping stone to gain experience with carriers, but one with “marginal” combat value. After the last Yak-38M deployments in the late ’80s, the type was gradually retired; it was officially withdrawn in 1991 following a crash, ending roughly 15 years of service.

Yak-39: The VTOL Upgrade That Never Flew

39 1

Yak 39 concept

Even as the Yak-38 was entering service, Soviet planners knew it was not a world-beating design, and so there was the Yak-39 project, a proposed improved VTOL combat aircraft to replace the Yak-38. The Yak-39 was indeed a real project, though it never reached prototype stage. Work began around 1979 on paper studies, and Yakovlev formally received the go-ahead in 1981 to develop a multi-role VTOL based on Yak-38 technology. The goal was to create a subsonic but far more capable V/STOL aircraft that could serve in multiple roles (shipborne fighter, attack, and reconnaissance). The Yak-39 was to have a multi-mode pulse-Doppler radar (for true all-weather and beyond-visual-range capability) and be able to fire medium-range air-to-air missiles as well as anti-ship missiles. In essence, it would transform the limited Yak-38 into a platform more analogous to a Sea Harrier or early Harrier II, with proper radar and guided weapons.

Design-wise, the Yak-39 was a significant redesign of the Forger. According to declassified details, the Yak-39 (chief designer: A. Travin) would still use the lift-cruise plus lift engines layout, but almost everything else was upgraded. The nose was lengthened and enlarged to house a radar – reportedly the Phazotron S-41D or even the N019 radar from the MiG-29 (known as “Sapfir-29”) was considered. This would allow the Yak-39 to guide semi-active radar homing missiles like the R-27R (AA-10 Alamo) against aerial targets, and to target anti-ship missiles. The wing was to be increased in span and area, with larger leading-edge root extensions (“strakes”) to improve lift and agility. An expanded wing would also accommodate six hardpoints instead of four, boosting weapons capacity. Additional fuel was to be carried to extend range. Yakovlev engineers worked on weight-saving measures including composite materials in the structure. Three variants were planned on the same airframe: a single-seat fighter, a single-seat strike/attack version (optimized for air-to-ground), and initially a two-seat training version.

Early projections foresaw building several Yak-39 prototypes in 1984–86, followed by a two-seat trainer prototype by 1987. However, the dedicated trainer was deemed unnecessary in 1983 – it was decided pilots could train on existing Yak-38U two-seaters and then transition to the Yak-39. The project then focused on the combat versions only. By 1983 the design work was in full swing, but soon problems emerged. It became clear that with the existing powerplant (a refined R-28 engine and perhaps uprated lift jets), the Yak-39 would remain subsonic and only marginally better than the Yak-38M. Essentially, it was an interim solution. Concurrently, a far more ambitious idea – a supersonic VTOL fighter – was gaining traction (this would become the Yak-41). By 1985, priorities shifted. The first Yak-39 prototype was expected around mid-1985 for static tests, but in reality, the project was cancelled that same year (1985) before any prototype flew. Yakovlev and the Navy decided to channel resources into the supersonic Yak-41 instead, as that offered a bigger leap in capability. The Yak-39 remained a “paper airplane” – design drawings and a wind-tunnel model existed (a scale model is preserved in a Russian museum), but no actual Yak-39 was ever built or tested.

Some of the Yak-39’s design studies (e.g. a wider-span wing with six pylons and advanced avionics) fed directly into early concepts for the Yak-41, so the effort was not entirely wasted.

Yak-41 (Yak-141 “Freestyle”): Supersonic VTOL Fighter

1208px Yakovlev Yak 141 at 1992 Farnborough Airshow (2)

Yak-141 VTOL fighter during hover at 1992 Farnborough Airshow

The Yak-41 – later publicly designated Yak-141 – was the ultimate evolution of Yakovlev’s VTOL program. Conceived in the late 1970s, it aimed to overcome the deficiencies of the Yak-38 by delivering true supersonic performance and modern weapon systems in a vertical take-off package. Official requirements issued in 1977 called for a fleet defence interceptor that could operate from the new generation of Soviet carriers (1143.5-class, e.g. Kuznetsov). The Yak-41 was to protect the fleet against enemy aircraft and cruise missiles, a role which demanded much higher speed and better radar than the Yak-38 had. Yakovlev’s team initially explored exotic configurations (including twin-engine layouts), but they settled on a refined single-engine design with two lift jets, much like an enlarged Yak-38 in concept. The Yak-141’s design specs list a maximum speed of around 1,800 km/h (~Mach 1.7 at altitude). It was designed to be capable of sustained supersonic flight, unlike any previous VTOL jet.

Crucially, the Yak-41 would carry a powerful multi-mode pulse-Doppler radar for true all-weather, multi-target engagement. The radar in development for it (often referred to as Zhuk or S-41) could track multiple aerial targets and support medium-range air-to-air missiles like the R-27R/ER or the new R-77 (AA-12 Adder). This fulfilled the requirement for “medium range stand-off weapons against air targets.” For strike missions, the Yak-41 was also to integrate guided air-to-ground munitions (possibly including TV-guided missiles or smart bombs, leveraging tech from the MiG-27 and Su-25T programs). An infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor and helmet-mounted sight were planned as well – this would allow a pilot to cue high-off-boresight dogfight missiles like the R-73. In short, the Yak-41 was intended to be a true multi-role fighter with far more sophisticated avionics than any previous VTOL jet.

Technically, the Yak-41’s design was cutting-edge. It featured a single large afterburning turbofan, the Soyuz R-79V-300, capable of about 15,500 kgf (34,000 lbf) thrust in afterburner. This engine had a vectoring nozzle at the tail that could rotate downward for hover (somewhat like the British Pegasus, but with afterburning). Complementing it were two Rybinsk RD-41 lift engines in tandem behind the cockpit, providing ~4,100 kgf each. These would engage only during take-off/landing. To manage the heat and airflow, Yakovlev incorporated many refinements: e.g. spring-loaded doors on the main intakes to supply extra air at low speeds, and special deflectors/strakes to reduce the re-ingestion of hot exhaust gases (a problem identified in earlier VTOL tests). The airframe was far more aerodynamic – it had a streamlined fuselage with twin canted tailfins and a high-mounted swept wing (45° sweep) with full-span leading-edge flaps and trailing flaps. In planform it looked somewhat akin to a smaller F-18 or a Sovietized Harrier II, very “clean” by late-80s standards. NATO eventually assigned the Yak-41 the reporting name “Freestyle.”

The development of the Yak-41/Yak-141 was long and challenging. It officially kicked off in the early 1980s (after approval in 1979–80), but numerous delays with the new R-79 engine and advanced systems pushed timelines out. By 1987, Yakovlev had built four prototypes: two were for static ground tests and systems integration, and two were flight prototypes capable of flying. The first flying prototype made its maiden flight on 9 March 1987 (takeoff in conventional mode), piloted by chief test pilot Andrei Sinitsyn. However, at that point not all systems were ready – the initial flights were done without the full radar or weapons suite, focusing on basic flight envelope. The second flying prototype, completed in 1989, was closer to the intended configuration and later performed most of the carrier trials and record attempts.

The Yak-141 achieved a number of world records for VTOL aircraft in 1990–91. In the spring of 1991, a Yak-141 set 12 FAI-class records in its category – examples include time-to-altitude records (e.g. reaching 3,000 m in 62.4 seconds with a 1,000 kg payload) and altitude-with-payload records (e.g. 13,000+ m with 2,000 kg payload). These feats demonstrated the impressive thrust and potential of the design, surpassing what earlier VTOL jets like the Harrier had achieved. To keep the project secret, the Soviets registered these records under the designation “Yak-141” instead of Yak-41 – hence the dual naming. By mid-1991, Yak-141 prototypes had also conducted successful carrier trials: they performed vertical take-offs and landings on the deck of the Baku (CVHG-Admiral Gorshkov) in the summer of 1991. This showed that the aircraft could operate from a carrier at sea, and everything seemed on track for deployment to the new carrier Kuznetsov in a few years. In short, by late 1991 the Yak-41M program had finally “hit its stride,” validating the design’s performance.

Yak-141 Program Cancellation and Aftermath

Sadly the Yak-41/Yak-141 never progressed beyond the prototype stage due to an accident and the collapse of the USSR. On 5 October 1991, during carrier trials on the Gorshkov, one of the flying prototypes (tail code “77”) suffered a malfunction while landing vertically. Test pilot Lt. Col. Yakimov ejected (this time manually) and survived, but the aircraft was badly damaged by fire on the deck. This incident occurred just weeks after the August 1991 Soviet coup attempt. The program was temporarily put on hold to investigate the accident. Around the same time, the Soviet Union was dissolving. By the end of 1991 the government funding for Yak-141 evaporated. In fact, sources note the official cancellation of state support in August 1991, even though Yakovlev continued limited work into early 1992 on its own dime. With the Soviet military in disarray and drastic budget cuts, the Yak-41 was cancelled before any production could be ordered. The two existing flight prototypes were all that remained of Yak-141.

However, the story did not quite end there. Lockheed from the United States stepped in to collaborate with Yakovlev in 1992. Desperate for funding, Yakovlev sought foreign partners to help continue the Yak-141 development, and Lockheed showed interest – at the time, Lockheed was studying advanced STOVL concepts (what would become the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter). In 1992, Lockheed agreed to a limited funding deal (on the order of $4 million USD) to gain access to Yakovlev’s VTOL research and potentially license some of the technology. The cooperation was kept low-profile, but it is known that Lockheed engineers learned about the Yak-141’s rotating nozzle design, control systems, and perhaps the lift engine arrangements. Some speculate this influenced Western VTOL efforts later on (though Lockheed officially claims no direct transfer into the F-35). In any case, Yakovlev used the infusion of cash to refurbish the surviving prototype (aircraft “75”). They repainted this Yak-141 in a new gray scheme with the code “141” on the fuselage and prepared it for international display.

In September 1992, Yakovlev demonstrated the Yak-141 to the world at the Farnborough Airshow in Britain. This was a remarkable event: the once-secret Soviet supersonic jump-jet was now flying publicly in the West. (An interesting anecdote: after a few days, Farnborough officials asked Yakovlev to stop performing vertical take-offs because the Yak-141’s powerful jet blast was reportedly melting/buckling the runway tarmac!) The presence of “Yak-141” in the West also symbolized the end of the Cold War era – the aircraft was now essentially a technology demonstrator seeking foreign buyers. Despite talks with Lockheed and even an attempt to interest the Russian Navy in a revived version during the 1990s, no further development occurred. The single remaining Yak-141 prototype continued some test flights through 1993 (it appeared at the MAKS-1993 show in Moscow), but was soon retired to Yakovlev’s museum. The Lockheed partnership quietly concluded as the Americans moved on with their own ASTOVL programs. In sum, the Yak-41/Yak-141 project was terminated without entering service, a victim of both timing and budget.

Conclusion

The Soviet VTOL program, though often overshadowed by Western equivalents like the Harrier, stands as a testament to the resilience and ingenuity of Soviet aerospace engineering under constraint. From the tentative hovers of the Yak-36 to the ambitious, supersonic promise of the Yak-41, the Yakovlev bureau pursued vertical flight not simply as a technical novelty, but as a strategic answer to naval aviation limitations and Cold War competition. While the Forger never matched its Western rivals in combat effectiveness, it nonetheless gave the Soviet Navy its first taste of true fixed-wing carrier-based aviation. And though the Yak-41 never entered service, its technological legacy lived on, influencing international designs in the post-Soviet era.

In the end, the Soviet VTOL journey was one of bold starts and unfinished potential—an engineering path shaped as much by political upheaval and economic pressures as by aerodynamic ambition. These aircraft remain a unique Cold War legacy: flawed, innovative, and quietly influential.

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