The Evolution of Cruise and Guided Missiles

Cruise and guided missile had become one of the most decisive precision weapons on the battlefield. Used for the first strikes of Operation Desert Storm, and to a similar effect during the invasion of Iraq. Now, their legacy continues in the Russo-Ukrainian War, where both sides have seen success with various iterations of the concept.

The unique nature of the cruise missile is a result of decades of research dating back to the 1940s, and it shows no signs of retiring anytime soon.

HISTORY

The story of the Cruise Missile concept dates back technically to World War 1. The idea of a so-called flying torpedo was an early one, resulting in the Kettering Bug, essentially a biplane mounted with an explosive device. It allowed for long-range strikes up to 120 kilometres away.

Interesting in theory, designers realised this would be costly, but pinned hopes on evolving rocket technology and radio controllers.

Between 1936 and 1937, British and American researchers successfully tested radio-controlled drones by converting light aircraft. By 1940, the Allies had developed concepts of an attack drone using TV guidance.

However, it would be Germany that would most notably pioneer the implementation of a cruise missile-style design, first showcased in the V-1 flying bomb. From June 1944 onwards, the Wehrmacht launched over 9,500 such weapons. The V-1 was a truly remarkable achievement, boasting decent accuracy, a long range, a large warhead, and being powered by a pulsejet.

It could be launched from the ground and later from modified bombers. Internally, it was simple enough to both mass-produce and employ effectively. Pneumatic systems, a magnetic compass, a basic autopilot, and an anemometer would direct the weapon to bearing, reach its intended range, and descend onto the target, giving decent area effect capabilities. Other variants with different modifications would be produced throughout the war, with a total of 30,000 units built. The Germans would then develop a variety of similar radio-controlled cruise bombs with varying capabilities.

Overall, the V-1 set a new standard for post-war weapons; the Germans had proven that a jet-powered flying bomb could be built in large numbers, with reasonable accuracy and a decent payload.

The US, too, would begin experimenting with similar weapons. Following the attack on Pearl Harbour, the US military contracted designers to expand upon this idea under Project OPTION. The result was a working flying torpedo concept called TDN-1. Developed by the US Naval Aviation Factory, it was a piston-engined 2000-pound weapon, built from wood, with a cruise speed of 280 km/h.

Over 100 were built, but it was deemed impractical. Research nonetheless continued, resulting in a more robust design—the TDR-1. This design was more feasible, although it was still not ready for mass production. In 1944, it was deployed to the Pacific for testing. Advanced for its time, it would be controlled from inside a Grumman Avenger. Using a telephone dial, the bombs could be armed and launched, as well as set to autopilot. The controller used a basic TV receiver and joystick, and could switch between up to four different channels, allowing him to utilise up to four bombs in the air at once.

Four of these drones would be tested on July 30, with two resulting in successful hits on the beached Yamazuki Maru. By September 27, the bombs were being used in combat against Japanese installations in Bougainville, catching the enemy off guard, who believed the Americans were now doing Kamikaze attacks. Over 37 would be launched, with 21 resulting in direct hits.

The project would be shelved after this due to difficulties with its complexity. By the end of the war, the US had experimented with other flying bomb concepts, including converting conventional planes into remotely controlled units, simply filled with explosives, like the German Mistel program, under Project APHRODITE and intended to be part of a so-called Project PERILOUS. These RC bomb planes were crude, obvious to see, and dangerous.

However, by 1945, American researchers had begun seeing small successes in the realm of actual cruise missile tech.

The first breakthrough was the construction of the JB-2, also known as the ‘Loon’. The Loon was a reverse-engineered copy of the German V-1 ‘buzz bomb’, which provided critical, hands-on experience with pulse-jet propulsion, launch techniques and guidance, that helped inform early US cruise missile programs. The Loon was built to help in the case of Operation Downfall, the US invasion of mainland Japan. While not groundbreaking, it demonstrated that US designers could successfully match German engineering. Shortly after, it would be built into the Northrop JB-10, a flying wing equivalent.

FIRST CRUISE MISSILES

With lessons learned from the war, by 1946, plans were being drawn up for a more advanced derivative of the JB-2.

That same year, Martin would be awarded a $1.6 million contract to expand upon the cruise missile concept. The result was the Matador, also known as the MX-771. By 1949,  now under US Air Force command, the missile was tested for the first time. With a range of 1,100 kilometres, a cruise altitude of 30,000 feet, and a payload of 3,000 pounds, it was a decent design. It would have a zero-length launch, propelled into the sky by a solid fuel booster, and then powered by an Allison J33 turbojet.

With the start of the Korean War, Martin would receive another contract to begin production in 1951, now designated B-61A.

By 1954, it had entered operational service.

In practice, the missile was troublesome; it was primarily intended to carry a nuclear warhead, though it could be outfitted with conventional explosives. However, radio guidance limited its range to line of sight. Improvements would see it guided via a network of transmitters, although even these were easy to jam. By 1957, over 1200 had been built, and production had ended. Despite being deployed across Western nations, it was deemed quite impractical.

In 1958, a heavily modified variant, the TM-76A Mace, was developed from the Matador. Trading altitude and range for precision, the Mace utilised an early terrain guidance system called ATRAN, which employed a downward-facing radar and compared the signal with pre-mapped data stored on film. Forward thinking in theory, it nevertheless required recon photos of the flightpath. The Mace would then be upgraded to utilise an early inertial navigation systemINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More. The tradeoff this time was that it had to be launched from a fixed position for the INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More to work.

The Mace and Matador would serve into the 1960s, with the final Mace-B retired in 1971, long after it had become obsolete. Despite their issues, the missile systems would be forerunners to later computerised methods of cruise missile delivery.

EARLY US NAVY MISSILES

From 1946 through 1954, the Regulus I and II (the Navy’s first operational sea-launched cruise missiles) were built. These were similar in some ways to the Mace, being nuclear-capable, with a similar outward design, launch, and delivery method. They could be launched from ships or submarines.

Declared operational in 1954, over 500 would be built. Unlike the Air Force design, the Regulus could be guided via a control aircraft, giving it far greater range. The larger Regulus II would build on this initial variant. The Regulus II was the supersonic successor to the subsonic Regulus I. Unlike its predecessor, it featured swept wings, no tailplane and small canards. And was powered by a GE J79 afterburning turbojet, enabling Mach 2.2 at high altitude. It was designed for submarine launch. Submarines built for the Regulus II, like the Halibut, could store up to two missiles in their hangar, which could be launched by a rail system on deck.  Despite its high performance and successful test flights, the program was cancelled in 1958 because the Navy shifted to Polaris Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM), which didn’t require the sub to surface, offered greater range, accuracy and survivability.

USAF SNARK

Throughout this period, a third, even more ambitious design had been in the works. In 1946, the Air Force had contracted Northrop to develop the MX-755, later designated as the operational SM-62 Snark.

First flying in 1951, the Snark weighed 28000 pounds, with a range of over 10,000 kilometres in the production variant. It was intended to be an intercontinental delivery method for the W-39 thermonuclear warhead.

Launched via rocket boosters, the Snark would then fly to the target with a Pratt & Whitney J57-P-3 turbojet. To extend its range, it featured fuel pods that would be jettisoned once empty. Once over the target, the Snark would continue to deliver its warhead to the target area with a terminal dive maneuver.

Tested between 1953 and 1957, it was troubled; Snarks encountered various problems, including one test missile that flew south from its Florida test zone, out of sight, until it was discovered in the Brazilian jungle years later.

Guided by another early INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More, it was still deemed inaccurate. Entering service in 1959, it would reach full operational capacity in March 1961, only to be completely withdrawn from service in June by President Kennedy, who noted that the missile was obsolete and of limited military value.

USAF NAVAHO

The Navaho would supersede the Snark. Conceived around the same time as MX-770 in 1947, higher hopes had been placed on the Navaho than on other cruise missile projects at the time.

In 1950, the project received new specifications: a twin-ramjet design launched by liquid-fueled rocket boosters, capable of carrying a payload up to 8,000 kilometres at speeds of up to Mach 3. In October 1953, supersonic test flights were conducted on the first updated prototype, the J40-powered X-10, which reached speeds of Mach 2.05, setting a speed record for a jet aircraft.

The cruise missile configuration would use two RJ-47 ramjets and would be launched by a large rocket booster. Once at an altitude of 90,000 feet, the missile would begin its cruise stage to the target.

In flight, the INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More allowed the missile to make manoeuvres to avoid air defences, while still giving semi-accurate guidance to the target.

Many test flights would occur using this twin-stage booster and cruise missile configuration, with most failing at some point in flight. By late 1957, the program was shut down, costing $800 million.

The Navaho was simply too complex, although its ambitious program led to several breakthroughs after its termination. The INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More would serve as the basis for future submarine and missile navigation systems, while the launch rocket would form the basis for the Thor and Atlas rockets, which would be utilised as launch vehicles by NASA.

In the meantime, other projects were attempted without success, including Project PLUTO, which aimed to develop a nuclear-powered ramjet design to fly a supersonic, low-altitude missile to targets over long distances. Such a project was simply too ambitious to ever produce.

HOUND DOG

The result of these decade-long experiences in the 1950s was the AGM-28 Hound Dog. A Mach 2.1 capable cruise missile, it would be the most successful of these early programs.

The design would be started in 1957, utilising existing components and tech from previous experiments, such as a modified airframe and navigation system from the Navaho. By 1959, the platform was operational, and by the end of that year, it was fully deployed.

Powered by a single J52 engine from the Skyhawk, it featured a sleek design, intended for launch from a B-52 in pairs.

It would serve two roles; firstly, it could deliver a nuclear warhead, but would also act as a decoy for soviet air defences, taking the heat off the B-52 launch plane and allowing it to push through to the target.

The Hound Dog was not particularly accurate, but with a one megaton warhead, it didn’t need to be. It would be guided by an INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More system with room for manoeuvring, but also featuring a star tracker as a backup.

722 Hound Dogs were produced, with a peak of about 600 deployed in the Strategic Air CommandThe U.S. Air Force’s primary organization for long-range nuclear deterrence during the Cold War, responsible for maintaining and, if necessary, delive... More inventory by 1963, serving for almost two decades, before retirement in 1976, by which time the AGM-69 had replaced it on the B-52.

ADM-20 Quail

One interesting design, although not directly a cruise missile, was the ADM-20 Quail, a small decoy. Up to four would be loaded into a B-52 for deployment with the Hound Dog.

It was a small, compact design with folding wings. It would be lowered from the rear of the B-52 bomb bay, where the wings would spread, and it would enter the airstream.

At its core, the Quail would aid both the B-52 and Hound Dog when entering enemy airspace. In theory, its boxy design would allow it to mimic the radar cross-section of the B-52, confusing ground radars. From 1958 to 1963, over 600 Quails would be produced, remaining in frontline use throughout the 1960s. In 1972, a study found that radar operators could identify the Quails almost every time, leading to their phasing out in 1978.

The Quail and Hound Dog were arguably the two best working concepts from the 50s regarding cruise missile tech, and they would set a clear path forward for the future.

SCAD & AGM-86

By the 1970s, breakthroughs had occurred. One such breakthrough was in the development of cruise missile power plants. In 1962, Dr Samuel Williams had developed a new lightweight turbofan, the WR-2, and by 1964, this had been refined into the WR-19. Two feet long and one foot wide, weighing only 31 kilograms, it produced 430 lbf of thrust, ten times that of similar-sized engines at the time.

This came at a critical time. The military had a growing interest in drones, which were proving successful as reconnaissance platforms in Vietnam, such as the Firebee.

The military put forth three proposals: the subsonic cruise unarmed decoy (or SCUD), the subsonic cruise attack missile (SCAM), and, finally, the chosen option: the subsonic cruise armed decoy (SCAD), capable of travelling up to 1200 kilometres.

Development would begin in 1970. Unlike the name suggests, the SCAD was actually a multi-use weapon; principally capable of armed attack, with the decoy designation added for political reasons, so as not to undermine crewed bomber programs.

The SCAD would need to be deployable from the SRAM adapter on the B-52, meaning it had to have folding wings, a modified shape, and be small. These limitations led to a project shutdown in 1973, but within months it was up and running again, this time explicitly ready to fulfil its purpose; as an attack missile.

The reason was simple; in the lead-up to the SALT II treaty, the US wanted as many bargaining chips as possible to balance negotiations. A long-range attack cruise missile would be just such a threat.

This would come just in time. During this period, the Navy had its own plans for a small cruise missile capable of being launched through a torpedo tube, known as the Sub Launched Cruise Missile. With commonalities obvious across the two projects, the Pentagon began utilising both programs; both would use a similar guidance system, and the F107 turbofan, a derivative of the powerful WR-19.

In 1976, an ultimatum occurred; the Air Force would either continue to develop its own missile or accept whatever the Navy produced. The choice was obvious, and testing began on a semi-refined alteration of the SCAD, referred to as the AGM-86.

It would have a relatively short range, thanks in large part to the government-imposed requirement that it fit onto the B-52 SRAM rotary mount. These limitations led to a breach of the requirement, as the AGM-86 Bravo model, 30% larger, with an extended range and larger fuel stores, was mounted on an underwing pylon.

In 1979, selections would take place; the 86B would fly off against the AGM-109, a competing design, with both performing poorly. Despite this, in 1980, the AGM-86B was selected anyway, and by 1981, the first production builds were being sent to various B-52 squadrons.

There were also concepts, during the early 1970s, of a BoeingThe Boeing Company: A global aerospace leader and one of the world’s largest defense contractors, specializing in the design and manufacture of milita... More 747 that could carry up to 72 AGM 86s within its hollowed-out fuselage. It was pitched as a cost-effective, low-risk, concept. Though it was scrapped for future projects like the B-1 Lancer.

Despite the drawbacks, it was evident that the cruise missile was a design for the future. By 1987, the Charlie model would arrive, referred to as the conventional ALCM, designating its non-nuclear intent. It would have smaller fuel stores than the B model, but a larger 3000-pound warhead, yet still retain the same 1200-kilometre claimed range. To reduce the circular error of probability, the C model would also utilise GPS-INS guidance, a significant improvement.

TOMAHAWK

Meanwhile, during this period, the Navy continued to develop its own cruise missile. The main motivation was the Navy’s lack of a clear bomber or strike force. Thus, a missile was desired that could travel large distances, preferably at low altitudes, and then strike hard targets with precision. To top it off, it had to be small enough to fire through a torpedo tube.

By 1980, a design had won out in competitions – the BGM-109, or Tomahawk. Within a few years, the first Tomahawks were operational on submarines, alongside certain classes of destroyers and cruisers, as well as a retrofitted adaptation for use on the four legacy Iowa-class battleships.

Four early Tomahawk variants (A–D) were produced in multiple production blocks and sub-blocks, which shared the same basic launch and flight architecture but differed in terms of mission and payload. Of these, BGM-109A was the nuclear variant, BGM-109B the anti-ship version, while BGM-109C and BGM-109D were the conventional Tomahawk Land-Attack Missile (TLAM-C and TLAM-D, unitary and dispenser configurations, respectively). A later Block-IV improvement (often referred to as the Block-IV or “E” upgrade) arrived much later and introduced enhanced guidance and mission-planning features.

A torpedo shape, it would be launched through the tube, before extending wings and tailplane for cruising. It would match the AGM-86 with a 1200-kilometre range, although its warhead would obviously be smaller, at 1000 pounds.

After the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, which banned ground-launched cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 km, the US withdrew its BGM-109G “Gryphon” ground-based Tomahawk missiles. However, sea- and air-launched Tomahawks were not covered by the treaty, so the US Navy continued operating the nuclear-armed TLAM-N on submarines and surface ships into the early 1990s. In 1991, following US nuclear posture changes, President George H. W. Bush ordered all naval nuclear Tomahawks offloaded from ships and submarines.

“The United States will withdraw all tactical nuclear weapons from its surface ships. This means removing all nuclear Tomahawk cruise missiles from US ships and submarines, as well as nuclear bombs aboard aircraft carriers.”

By the early 2010s, the TLAM-N was permanently retired, leaving only conventional Tomahawk variants (TLAM-C/D/E) in service.

To help with accuracy, the TLAM would use three systems: an INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More, a terrain mapping system called TERCOM, and a terminal guidance program called Digital Scene Matching Correlator (DSMAC), which would use a digital camera to capture images of the path to the target and cross-reference them with preexisting data. If done correctly, this would be highly accurate.

DESERT STORM

High faith in the Tomahawk and AGM-86 designs would lead to their first major combat employment during Desert Storm. Here, the Navy launched Tomahawks, and the B-52 launched AGMs, which would form part of the initial strike on Baghdad, targeting command posts, power stations, and other crucial points.

This proved to be an overwhelming success, with both missiles achieving their goals.

By this point, cruise missiles were now considered an essential part of the US military’s standoff weapons capability. Other designs had also entered the fold, including the AMG-84 Harpoon, a smaller weapon which could be used in an anti-ship capacity, and later a derivative for sea and land employment called the SLAM-ER.

Throughout the 90s, the Tomahawk and AGM-86 would be employed in various capacities; many times used in limited strikes against Iraq, Afghanistan, and Bosnia.

This decade of combat testing proved that these designs were trustworthy, though only to the extent that they matched the amount of effort mission planners invested. Low effort and inadequate data planning would lead to unreliable employment, but if planners supplied the missile with sufficient digital tracking data, images, and a topographically calibrated flight path, all would go well.

Also introduced in the early 1990s for the B-52H was the AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missile (ACM). It was a low-observable, subsonic, air-launched nuclear cruise missile developed to replace earlier ALCMs and enhance survivability against modern air defences. It combined stealthy shaping with TERCOM/INS navigation, augmented by a laser Doppler velocimeter, for long-range, high-accuracy strikes. The W80 nuclear warhead was carried. Procurement was curtailed after the Cold War, and the fleet was retired and destroyed by 2012.

MODERN MISSILES

This brings us into the realm of modern cruise missiles, of which there are many. Since the early 2000s, designers across the East and West have capitalised on increasingly precise digital computing to produce impressive, long-range, reliable, and highly precise cruise missiles.

Arguably, the first of these modern designs was the AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile, which emerged in 2002. A cost-effective, modernised design, it would have lowered radar visibility and high accuracy using a GPS-INS and an infrared seeker.

Given its size, the JASSM can be carried internally by the B-1 and B-2, externally by the B-52, Super Hornet, F-16, and F-35, and even deployed from a C-130 via a specially designed cargo bay rolloff system. The first export customer would be Australia.

Various variants have since been developed, including the LRASM (long-range anti-ship missile), the ER (extended range), and the XR (extra extended range). The first combat testing was scheduled to occur in Syria in 2018.

AGM-154

The AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) occupies a useful middle ground in modern standoff strike. It’s an unpowered, winged, glide weapon that let’s aircraft strike defended targets from outside point defence envelopes. Offering a far lower cost, lower complexities alternative to powered long-range cruise missiles.

The JSOW family entered service in the late 1990s and is fielded in A, B, and C variants. Depending on release altitude and speed, its glide range varies widely (roughly 12 nmi from low-altitude launches to about 60–70 nmi from high-altitude releases), making it ideal for medium-range, precision effects where a Tomahawk or JASSM would be overkill or unavailable.

Naval Strike Missile (NSM)

By 2012, the Norwegians had developed their own missile, the Naval Strike Missile (NSM), which the US Navy and Marines subsequently purchased. Then, Lockheed Martin, in collaboration with Australia and Norway, began work on a heavy modification of the weapon known as the Joint Strike Missile (JSM), designed for use on the F-35.

KEPD-350

Since 2006, the German/Swedish joint design known as KEPD-350 has also been a major system introduction. The KEPD-350 is integrated with most European fighters as an air-launched missile; the Gripen, Eurofighter and Tornado, to name a few.

Storm Shadow / SCALP-EG

The Storm Shadow (SCALP-EG) is a Franco-British, air-launched, low-observable deep-strike cruise missile developed by Matra/BAe (now MBDA) in the 1990s and introduced into service in the early 2000s. Designed for pre-planned attacks against hardened, high-value fixed targets, it carries a multi-stage BROACH penetrating warhead and combines GPSGPS (Global Positioning System): A satellite-based navigation system that provides precise location, velocity, and timing information to military airc... More/INS with terrain-referenced navigation and terminal imaging to achieve long-range, precision effects from standoff distances. The missile has been integrated on multiple combat aircraft (Tornado, Rafale, Mirage 2000 and Eurofighter Typhoon among them) and has seen combat use from Iraq (2003) through more recent operations in Libya, Syria and Ukraine.

Ukraine’s FP-5 “Flamingo”

One of the most notable recent developments is Ukraine’s FP-5 “Flamingo” — a large, low-altitude, ground-launched cruise missile developed for long-range strikes against high-value infrastructure well beyond the front lines. Public reporting and expert analyses attribute roughly 3,000 km range and a ~1,000–1,150 kg warhead to the design, and note its superficial resemblance to the WWII V-1 (straight wings and an over-fuselage turbofan), a reminder that modern precision guidance and propulsion have transformed an old concept into a far more capable weapon. The Flamingo’s combination of heavy payload, long range, and reportedly simple, mass-producible construction marks a significant step in Ukraine’s indigenous long-range strike capability and carries important operational and strategic implications.

Barracuda-M

Anduril’s Barracuda-M is a family of software-defined, air-breathing expendable Autonomous Air Vehicles, re-packaged as low-cost, mass-producible cruise-missile-style munitions. Designed for rapid, high-rate manufacture and flexible launch from a wide assortment of aircraft, ships, and land platforms, Barracuda aims to be cheaper and faster to produce than legacy cruise missiles—a key factor if large numbers are needed. The modular variants (100/250/500) and scalable production model have prompted commentators and Ukrainian-focused outlets to discuss Barracuda as a potential option or complement for Ukraine’s longer-range systems. Any transfer would require U.S. policy decisions, export approvals, and operational compatibility testing.

Wolfpack

Similarly, L3Harris is developing their own modular missile family called the Wolfpack. Designed for multi-roll purposes, with the Red Wolf being a traditional cruise missile role designated for precision strikes, and the Green Wolf taking the role of electronic warfare with jamming and recon capabilities. But can also be used as decoy drones. They are unique in their launch platforms being helicopter-launched as well as sea-launched and ground-launched. L3Harris has stated that other unnamed variants are still under development based on internal investment and customer needs.

Kalibr (3M54/3M14)

While the West has many variants of cruise missiles, it is worth contrasting and looking at a few of the modern designs from eastern nations like Russia who have a similar history of cruise missile development such as the Kalibr family of missiles.

Russia’s Kalibr (3M54/3M14) family comprises ship-, submarine-, air-, and ground-launched variants for anti-ship and land-attack roles. With comparisons to the Tomahawk cruise missile being drawn, due to its design, and variants being ship- and sub-launched. It differs in being more versatile in launch platforms such as air-launch and ground-launch variants. Although the biggest difference is the Kalibr being supersonic capable, achieving a far greater strike range, and has been employed in combat operations, including those in Syria and Ukraine.

One of the more widely used cruise missiles from the Russian Air Force is the KH-101. A terrain-hugging missile, guided with an INSINS (Inertial Navigation System): A self-contained navigation system used in military aircraft that calculates position, velocity, and orientation wit... More and GLONASS satellite guidance. Propelled by a TRDD-50A turbojet under the fuselage, as well as being equipped with EW defenses to ensure a higher chance of reaching its destination.

Newer designs like the KH-59MK2 have also been introduced into Russia’s arsenal. The KH-59MK2 is an overhauled modernized variant of the older KH-59 cruise missile. With a more compact design and a redesigned square hull and retractable wings reminiscent of Western designs like the Storm Shadow and KEPD-350. It is designed to be carried internally in bomb-bays in various Russian combat aircraft, such as the Su-57 to maintain stealth characteristics and reduce radar cross section but can be equipped on external pylons if necessary.

Alongside the KH-59MK2 is the newer KH-69, which was first used operationally in early 2024. Both look near identical visually, with the KH-69 having a further reduced radar signature and guided by GPSGPS (Global Positioning System): A satellite-based navigation system that provides precise location, velocity, and timing information to military airc... More and Russia’s GLONASS Satellite system and is designed to target pre-coordinated stationary targets. Ukranian outlets claim the debris of a KH-69 missile was found in the aftermath of the Russian missile attack against the Trypilska Thermal Power Plant. Proving itself as an effective contemporary counterpart to Western GPSGPS (Global Positioning System): A satellite-based navigation system that provides precise location, velocity, and timing information to military airc... More guided cruise missiles.

Finally, the latest edition to Russia’s cruise missile family is the 9M730 Burevestnik (NATONATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) – A collective defense alliance established by the North Atlantic Treaty signed on April 4, 1949, initially ... More reporting name SSCX9 Skyfall). A nuclear-powered ground-launched system first revealed in 2018, successfully demonstrated in a 14,000km, 15 hour flight on October 21, 2025, flying at 50-100m altitude on an evasive, non-ballistic trajectory. It achieves effectively unlimited range and can deliver a nuclear warhead and is reported to be able to evade modern missile defences. Russian news agencies reported in February, 2019, the Burevestnik’s power unit had been tested successfully, and on the 5^th of October 2023, Russian President Vladimir Putin, claimed the missile had been successfully flight-tested.

In the current strategic landscape, marked by protracted conflict in Ukraine, and escalating nuclear signalling, the Burevestnik underscores a deliberate Russian challenge to missile defence architectures, and a recalibration of mutual deterrents.

CONCLUSION

Today, work continues across the east and west on further developing the cruise missile concept into increasingly precise, capable systems. Subsonic missiles remain a core part of American and Russian arsenals, while work is increasingly done on developing supersonic and hypersonic missile designs partly based on cruise missile concepts.

From its first conceptualisation as a flying torpedo in World War II, to the effective use of the V-1 flying bomb, and now to the broad adoption of increasingly precise munitions, the cruise missile concept has proven to be one of the most effective long range weapons in modern combat, and shows no sign of fading into irrelevancy any time soon.